The Stone Breakers

            With the rise of the socialist movements, the invention of photography, and the revolutionary push of avant-garde art reacting against academy traditions also came the birth of Realism painting. One such painter, Gustave Courbet, believed that painting was an “essentially concrete art,” and embraced the notion of realism, painting only what existed in front of him—what he could see with his own eyes. He also believed in art as being utilitarian and having the potential to initiate change for the better in society. This shows through his realism paintings, which incorporate political and technical perspectives of the radical avant-garde intention. His painting The Stone Breakers (1849) is a prime example of how he includes these ideas, reacts to the authority of the academy, and tries to bring awareness to the struggles of the lower class.

            First off, Courbet’s painting fits the political radicalism viewpoint in regards to his chosen subject matter. In The Stone Breakers, he depicts two gentleman of the proletariat (working/lower class) performing intense, backbreaking labor. To anyone of the upper class, these figures would appear humble and insignificant with their laborious activities and tattered clothing. This is what makes it have the affect it does. Keeping in mind that this painting was viewed majorly by the bourgeoisie (wealthy middle class), it was seen as imposing and intimidating due to its referencing of the poor. The rich folks didn’t want to see paintings of this sort because it offered them nothing. They didn’t want to be burdened by the thought of the struggling lower class, especially since they didn’t think the subject matter was worthy enough to begin with. In these ways Courbet glorifies the working class only a year after working class socialist revolutions (ignited by Karl Marx’s Communist Manifesto) and expresses empathy for their oppressed state.

            From an artistic, or technical standpoint, Courbet’s The Stone Breakers fills out the other definition of the avant-garde radical style. He breaks away from the traditions of the academic style in numerous ways, which also promote his bringing of awareness to the proletariat. His application of paint is rougher than usual academy paintings, similar to, but not to the extent of impressionism. This can possibly be seen as a reflection on the rough lives of the lower class. Also, the figures are brought to the foreground, making them fill the canvas—which also happens to be extremely large. This is another reason why the painting was so confrontational: with its enormity, usually reserved for noble or historie subject matter, it could not be avoided by the eyes of the bourgeoisie and therefore was a sight threatening to their lifestyle. Another untraditional aspect is Courbet’s disinterest in perspective and depth. There is no illusionism in the background, but rather a rolling hill that takes up the space and flattens the image in a way. Lastly, the figures’ gazes are turned away from the viewers of the painting, making them more anonymous, resulting in their representation of the general lower class. Since you cannot see their faces, they represent the masses.

            All of the characteristics of the painting offended members of the bourgeoisie, because all of its features pointed out the exploitation of the lower class by the upper class.

The Avant-Garde

            From the span of the early 19^th century to the mid 20^th century, the art world experienced a boom in the development of innovative ideas and styles, which came to be known as “avant-garde”. As artists moved away from the academy’s traditional values and characteristic paintings, not only did they create a new era of art, but they mocked the academy in a way, making viewers question their perspectives on the art they had known for years. The avant-garde style has characteristics of its own that make it separate from the academy through reacting to the academy, therefore making it controversial.

            Saint-Simon was the first to use the term (avant-garde) in connection with art. When he applied the term to art in the 1820s, its original meaning was related to art’s emancipatory role in society (how art can be useful to society and how it can lead people to do good). Down the road, variations of the style developed and the meaning eventually became associated with modern art. Gustave Courbet, a French painter who helped lead the Realism movement, said he wanted “to know in order to do,” meaning that one must be familiar with modern life (aided through painting modern life) in order to take action and help improve society.

The avant-garde style is based off of reactionism, in terms of the process as well as the product. Art historian Griselda Pollock argues that it must refer to the art world by making aware what is occurring in the art world (borrowing ideas or mimicking other valued or important pieces), and establishing a marked difference between the art world and the art that has already been created—a system coined “reference and difference.” By mocking traditional academic paintings, the avant-garde style is reacting to the academy. Without the academy, avant-garde would not exist. It is not uncommon for works produced in the avant-garde to be difficult to comprehend. In this way, the esotericism that these works presented made them thought provoking and “challenged” observers on their ideals of art. This is how the product involves reaction. I think that the move toward more contemporary art made the process of creating works less important, since it is mostly about reaction and the paintings are not trying to hide their true nature.

Édouard Manet, a French painter and pivotal figure in the transition from Realism to Impressionism, created a few works that marked the genesis of modern art. One such work is the controversial Luncheon on the Grass—controversial because of its informal use of the nude. It addresses the notion of prostitution and offended viewers because the nude woman’s gaze is fixed outward at the viewer, not only inviting, but making them as much a part of the painting as she is. There are characteristics of this painting that Manet employs that are relative to the style of avant-garde, which work to break illusionism and make the painting true to itself. For instance, the background is somewhat neglected, looking loose and haphazardly painted. Manet also utilizes black and white juxtapositions, and his brushstrokes are loose for the most part, allowing the viewer to see the artist’s hand. There is also a woman behind the main picnic scene that is out of scale with the rest of the subjects. She is placed farther back than her size suggests. All of these devices function to flatten the painting and maintain its inherent character.

Intruiging Art of the Early Northern Renaissance

            Throughout this course, many artistic movements grabbed my attention. However, art from the Early Northern Renaissance intrigued me from the start. This era seemed to be extremely influential and paved the way for many more artistic styles due to the newly discovered conventions by artists such as Jan van Eyck and Claus Sluter. The freshly developing ideas and styles from the Early Northern Renaissance included such things as an interest in naturalism, symbolism, attention to minute details (influenced by Aristotelian ideas regarding empirical observation), and intuitive (observed) perspective. This is also when the widespread utilization of thin layers of oil paint started, allowing painters to achieve rich textures, luminous colors, and reflective surfaces. Around 1450 in Germany, the printing press was invented, permitting artists to copy and distribute their works and the beautiful paintings of the Early Northern Renaissance to be spread.

            The works from this period are still very religious-based, and for that reason, it seems like artists take extra care in creating their pieces so as to reach and maintain a sort of perfection in portraying holy figures and scenes. Such a piece exists that embodies all of the above characteristics and attains this “perfection.”

This is the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck, assisted by his father, Hubert. Altarpieces became a popular form of representing religious artworks in the Northern Renaissance. They were usually commissioned by a church to be used as a sort of propaganda on their behalf. The Ghent Altarpiece is considered by some to be the greatest piece of art that the world has to offer. It reaches a harmony through the symmetry of the altarpiece’s form, as well as the balance of the compositions depicted inside. Completed in 1432, the medium is oil on wood. Van Eyck in particular can be held responsible for the popular use of oils due to the techniques he employed while using them. It is still hard for me to believe that he created the pieces he did using thin layers of oil paints.
            Van Eyck’s works, such as the center of the open altarpiece, The Adoration of the Lamb, seem impossibly detailed. For instance, surrounding the fountain in the middle are small jewels on the ground, each of them with a realistic reflective surface. This also encompasses the eyeballed perspective, from the distant infinity that Van Eyck created, to the water of life flowing out of the well and towards the viewers, connecting the two worlds—his mirrored reality and our own. His depiction of Adam has the same effect, and even seems to be stepping into our world thanks to the detail of his raised toes. Van Eyck incorporated empirical observation as well, as can be seen by his representation of the tanned skin on Adam, most likely taken from the model he used for the piece. His unbelievable naturalism comes into play with the light veins that can be seen under the skin. Adam looks like he is a real human.
            These impossible accomplishments amaze me. Not only Van Eyck’s works, but many others as well. The works from the Early Northern Renaissance meet a precise and specific feel of perfection only found in this period.

Fragonard

            Much of the art in the early 18^th century took on a new style quite different from that of the Baroque Period. From early 18^th century art developed the Rococo style, which incorporated fresh ideals of the time and tended to focus on organic forms, themes of love or eroticism, and mythological scenes or scenes in nature. When studying art from this era, I noticed that much of French painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard’s work follows these characteristics.

            Fragonard was a pupil of François Boucher for a time and developed into one of the most versatile and talented artists of the early 18^th century. Working with many mediums, he created many brilliant works with themes of religion, mythology, genre, and landscape. Originally on a path to be a historie painter, Fragonard turned away from “high art” to concentrate on lesser genres. His oil and canvas painting Diana and Endymion features many of the typical distinctions of Rococo art.

            The story of Diana and Endymion is a popular one in Greek mythology, which is a category that immediately falls under Rococo art. The Gods placed Endymion under eternal sleep in order to preserve his beauty and youth. In this scene, Diana, virgin goddess of the hunt, approaches to kiss the sleeping shepherd. A winged cupid also floats nearby on a cloud. Endymion was visited nightly by his love Diana, and in this way, it is also depicting a scene of love. The painting ties in with nature as well because the scene is occurring outside and has many organic forms and things found in nature. For example, the clouds that Diana seems to be floating on, the bright moon illuminating the setting from behind, and the vibrant plants and earthy foreground.

            The painting is held together with looser brush strokes than traditional styles of the past, giving it a softer texture. This is promoted more so and can almost be felt through the smooth and flowing diagonals in the composition. Pastel like colors are used for the skin tones and a sort of gold can be seen in the sheep in the lower right side of the piece—prominent colors found in art from the early 18^th century.

            The sheep and dog not only add another element of nature and organic form, but also are also symbolic of Endymion’s profession as a shepherd. The moon behind Diana is symbolic also because in other forms of the story, Selena is Endymion’s love, and she is goddess of the moon; or it could double as the moon representing their love itself.

            I was unable to find any function or patronage connected to this work, as there is not much information on it. However, it grabbed my attention with its active subject matter represented through diagonals. The subjects are bright and framed by the darkness around them, and the softness gives it a blurry feel that is comforting, exerting a peaceful sensation.

Baroque Art and the Davids

            The Baroque period of the 17^th century incorporates many ideals from the Renaissance, such as humanism, naturalism, idealism, illusionism, and visual harmony. Since these themes developed in the Renaissance Era just before the Baroque period, so it only makes sense that the Baroque style bases much of its characteristics off past notions in art. Both Bernini’s (from the Baroque period) and Michelangelo’s (from the Renaissance Era) statues of David share similar goals in representing these traits, although they may reach them in different fashions.
            Humanism is represented in both depictions of David through content and the human figure. The content celebrates human achievement through the Biblical story of David’s victory against Goliath. Although both figures are nude, the humanism translated through form in Bernini’s sculpture is muffled in his attempt for “appropriate” subject matter. A cloth conveniently covers his groin area as a result of counter-reformist actions in art. Michelangelo’s appears more influenced by classicism, since it is more idealized in regards to his musculature. However, Bernini may have idealized himself some as well.

            While Bernini’s sculpture might lacks in idealism, it excels with its naturalism, especially since Bernini was known to represent exactly what he saw in front of him for most of his paintings and sculptures. Michelangelo’s David, on the other hand, has disproportionate parts. His head seems slightly larger and his hands were made larger to account for its intended location up high, where the exaggeration would be deemed more suitable.

            Both of the sculptures attain visual harmony by different means. Michelangelo’s David is portrayed in contrapposto stance, with one weight bearing foot. This is not only a naturalist and humanist characteristic (in that it is a natural human stance), but it gives the piece a balance, with one bent leg and one bent arm. Bernini’s David is extremely dramatic in representing action. He appears in a twisting motion, giving many different aspects to the piece, while at the same time reaching a visual balance with the composition.

Albrecht Durer

Albrecht Durer was a German artist of the Renaissance period who produced many various works of art. His travels to further his skills led to his adoption of Southern European styles, specifically those invented in Italy. Many of the Italianate characteristics that he learned are represented in his art. A good example of this is his oil painting The Suicide of Lucretia. Elements and techniques of Italian Renaissance Art appear in this painting.

First off, there is immediately a theme of humanism in that it depicts the character Lucretia in the nude. This reflects on the beauty of the human figure as well as the Italian influences that Durer picked up, since humanism is a southern-born theme celebrating human achievement. Lucretia is, like the title says, committing suicide with a sort of dagger or short pointed sword. The sword is held in her right hand as she stabs herself in the abdominal area under her right breast, and the pain can almost be felt vicariously through the emotion captured in her face and the eerie scene being portrayed. As her eyes look upward, as if avoiding seeing the result of her actions, the muscles of her brow ruffle in agony. Even the curling of the toes on her left foot gives a sense of pain when connected with the intense content. There is more of a contribution to the anatomy than in most Northern art, given that many of the big name High Italian Renaissance artists studied the human body and sciences. Her skin glows with a warmth, and as it folds over on itself on her left side, it appears soft and (reinforced by the sword) pierce able.
            Durer has also shown this figure in the contrapposto stance, meaning that she has one weight bearing leg. This is another Italian idea supported by humanism. It is a natural stance in nature, and therefore, it is a bit of our reality that can contribute to the realism of the painting as well.
            Even though in some aspects, Lucretia looks out of proportion (such as her head being too small, or body slightly elongated), there is attention being paid to minute details: a miniscule amount of blood as she begins to stab herself, the curls in her hair as she tilts her head back, and the muscles underneath her skin—also folding and wrinkling in a natural way. These can all be connected to paintings of Northern Renaissance Art in how there is an interest in texture and fine details.

Mannerism in the Late Renaissance

            The Late Renaissance plays host to a new style of art that begins to develop in Italy as a response to the unease caused by Protestantism. This emerging style is known as Mannerism. Mannerism moves away from the reborn classicism of the High Renaissance and aims/tends to be more artificial. Representations of the human figure usually appear in unnatural or uncomfortable poses, making compositions seem unstable. It is also not uncommon for figures to be elongated or have unrealistic body proportions in the Mannerism movement. These imperfect, twisted bodies (and Mannerism art in general) have been called elegant as well as visual jokes. Pontormo’s Entombment and Bronzimo’s Allegory with Venus and Cupid are two painting that exemplify the notion of Mannerism as an artifice.

            Pontormo’s piece, Entombment, displays characteristics of the Mannerism style in that we can see many figures whirling in poses unlikely to be possible in reality. This creates a sense of instability and, therefore, tension in the piece. First, in the foreground at the bottom, we see a crouching man bearing the weight of Christ’s body on his shoulders, yet all this weight appears to be supported by only a few of his toes. Most of the figures seem elongated as well, especially the Virgin, who is depicted larger than the figures surrounding her and Christ (who also looks slightly larger than his counterparts). The figures in the foreground also show proportions that look off, mostly with their feet, and mostly with the man on the left that is carrying Christ by the arms. The woman swooning over the Virgin and outward at the viewer at the top of the painting is another figure who is unrealistically posed. If this were a real scene in life, she looks like she would fall over. In the painting, she looks unbalanced.

            As we move on to Bronzimo’s work, we see many similarities in comparison with Pontormo’s in representing characteristics of Mannerism, especially since Bronzimo was the apprentice of Pontormo. In the allegorical painting of Venus and Cupid, we see many twisted and abnormal positions for the human body. It might also be considered twisted in its content: the incest concerning Cupid and the Venus his mother. The most obvious flaw is the awkward position of Cupid as he kisses his mother. As he leans almost behind her, he looks like he is unbalanced and would fall in the real world, much like some of the figures in Entombment. Together, they are in a typical pose in Mannerism known as figura serpentinata—a sort of spiraling pose similar to contrapposto. There is also the fact that the body of Cupid is out of proportion with his head. It seems as though his body is portrayed like that of an older child’s and his head is like a toddler’s. In the upper right, a bearded man representing Time (note the hourglass on his back) extends and twists his arm in an elegant fashion to grasp the blue drapery that acts as a sort of backdrop.
            In each painting exist numerous characteristics that can be identified to the style of Mannerism. Considering they indeed came from the Late Renaissance and these artists worked together, this is no surprise.